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Lecture/Discussion Topics

1. NEUROTOXICITY AND BEHAVIOR

2. APPETITE, SLEEP, AND THE RESOURCE-INTENSIVE LIFESTYLE

3. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND BIOPHILIA

4. VISUAL PROCESSING OF NATURAL SCENES

5. THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS ON ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

6. ANIMAL RESEARCH AND ANIMAL RIGHTS ACTIVISM

Class Activities

1. MEASURING AROUSAL IN RESPONSE TO NATURE

  

Multimedia Resources

1. FILMS: NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TOXINS ON CHILDREN

2. WEBSITE: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY NEWSLINK

  

Suggested Readings for Students

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References Cited in this Section

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LECTURE/DISCUSSION TOPICS

NEUROTOXICITY AND BEHAVIOR

The topic of toxic pollution is very relevant to the discipline of psychology because of mounting research on the negative developmental, cognitive, and behavioral effects of exposure (Koger, Schettler, & Weiss, 2005; Winter & Koger, 2004).  Many chemical pollutants are endocrine disrupters that affect a variety of behaviors including motivation, aggression, learning, and reproduction (Zala & Penn, 2004; Panzica, Viglietti-Panzica, & Ottinger, 2005).  Prenatal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals is associated with cognitive deficits such as lower IQ and poorer memory, attention, and reading comprehension (Porterfield, 2000).  Exposure to common pesticides can lead to developmental disabilities and depression (Weiss, 1997, 1998).  Zala and Penn (2004) suggest that the full extent of the negative effects of toxins on behavior and cognitive functioning may not become apparent unless observed in a naturalistic context (e.g., one containing stressors that might catalyze the effects).  A discussion about the biopsychological effects of toxins is incomplete without addressing the issues of education and prevention.  Students may assume that industrial pollutants are the only concern, but toxic chemicals are also found in common household products.  Ask students, "How can people be encouraged to stop using these toxins when users feel they are required to maintain a standard of cleanliness in the house or greenness of the lawn?"  Clearly, the answer is not merely to educate people about the potential hazardous effects; there are social norms and cultural expectations at play.  For example, Carol Werner (2003) found that a program to reduce the use of toxic household products was more successful when individuals were not targeted for change in isolation, but were educated along with their social group.  An individual may know that certain chemicals are dangerous, but their acceptance by "everyone else" as normal (or necessary) may present a barrier to individual change.

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APPETITE, SLEEP, AND THE RESOURCE-INTENSIVE LIFESTYLE

Eating and sleeping are two basic physiological processes that are disrupted and distorted in contemporary urban environments.  Students will be familiar with media reports about the "epidemics" of sleep deprivation and obesity in American culture and will be intimately familiar with the ways that innate sleep needs and natural appetites are undermined by hectic schedules, artificial lighting, fast food, caffiene, alcohol, etc.  After reviewing the ample research on sleep deprivation and unhealthy eating, the biopsychology instructor can connect these issues to environmental sustainability by asking students to think critically about the origins and consequences of these society-wide problems.  We are sleep-deprived unhealthy eaters because of our lifestyle circumstances; encourage students to consider alternative lifestyles (cross-culturally, historically) that are more intimately connected to the natural context (e.g., sleep influenced by natural light levels, a diet consisting of whole non-processed foods).  These lifestyles are not only stressful for our bodies and minds, they are also taxing the planet in that they are resource-intensive.  Ask students to consider the relative ecological impact of people living in sync with natural appetites and sleep cycles compared to people living as most Americans do.

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EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND BIOPHILIA

According to evolutionary biologist E.O. Wilson (1984), humans have an innate affinity for nature that he calls "biophilia."  In various writings on biophilia by Wilson and others (e.g., Kellert, 1997; Kellert & Wilson, 1993), this affinity is described as a love of nature, an attraction to nature, and a feeling of connection to nature.  Wilson theorizes that this affinity stems directly from our ancestral past, a past in which humans evolved as part of the natural landscape, not separated from it.  Biophilia and its converse, "biophobia" are interesting topics to address within the context of evolutionary psychology.  For more on Wilson's biophilia hypothesis, see the Ecopsychology page of this manual.

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VISUAL PROCESSING OF "NATURAL" SCENES

Visual psychophysics research has traditionally employed stimuli comprised of geometric shapes rather than more familiar and natural elements (e.g., animals). Recently, researchers studying more natural stimuli have generated evidence that humans and other primates can rapidly and accurately categorize natural scenes without the same degree of attention required in the processing of complex scenes of non-natural content (e.g., Jochen, 2003; Li, VanRullen, Koch, & Perona, 2005). So far, however, contrary to evolution-based predictions, the research suggests that familiar nature-based scenes, such as animals in woodland settings, are not necessarily processed more efficiently than familiar humanmade scenes, such as cars in urban settings (e.g., VanRullen & Thorpe, 2001). Ask students to consider why some researchers predict that we would process nature-based scenes more efficiently and accurately than humanmade scenes.  How might this be related to Wilson's biophilia?

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THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS ON ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Biological and environmental psychologists study the effect of environmental stressors such as noise and pollution on human behavior, but what effect do these stressors have on the behaviors of nonhuman species?  To spark a discussion on this topic, an instructor could introduce students to the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society's "Oceans of Noise" campaign to reduce undersea noise pollution.  The Society cites research evidence that noise from military sonar and oil and gas exploration is leading to hearing loss in whales, dolphins, and porpoises, thus interfering with their communication abilities.  Unable to communicate, animals are suffering injury, isolation, and even death.

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ANIMAL RESEARCH AND ANIMAL RIGHTS ACTIVISM

Animal models are fundamental in biopsychology, neurobiology, and neuroscience.  By connecting the issue of ethics in animal research to the larger animals rights movement, instructors can encourage students to think about humans' connection with animals and the natural world in general.  The discussion will not be boring and may get heated.  Prep students with some words about respectful dialogue.  Suggested discussion questions include the following:

• Why are some people so upset by animal research while others are unfazed by it? 
• Animal welfare advocates find some research procedures gruesome and cruel.  Have researchers who perform these procedures become desensitized?  Is a process of desensitization necessary for animal researchers when they are first starting their careers?
• What motivates animal rights activists to free laboratory animals?  Are their actions inspired by ecological awareness and concern?
• Is it ethical to use living creatures for research intended to subvert natural processes of illness, disease, and mortality in humans?  Does it make a difference in your position if the illness, disease, or mortality are brought on by natural factors (e.g., old age) versus by unnatural factors (e.g., exposure to chemical toxins)?
• (How) does research on sentience and emotion in animals affect your feelings about animal research in general and about standards of care for laboratory animals?

See Carbone (2004) for inspiration for further discussion questions.  For more on the history of attitudes toward animal research, see the History & Systems page of this manual. 

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CLASS ACTIVITIES

MEASURING AROUSAL IN RESPONSE TO NATURE

Have students conduct an exercise demonstrating the relation between psychological states and physiological response when viewing natural versus human environments. Beforehand, the instructor should collect images of scenes of nature (waterfalls, woods, wildlife, etc) vs. human environments (large cities, traffic, air pollution spewing from factories, etc), or short (e.g., 10-min.) video clips of each.   There are numerous free stock photos sites on the web.  To get started, click on the images below.  These pictures vary on a variety of dimensions (e.g., whether people are present; whether the scene is built, natural, or both; whether the human impact is damaging or more benign; shapes and colors):

CABIN, CAMPFIRE, CHIPMUNK, CIGARETTES, CLOUDS, COAST, DEER, FACTORY, FIELD, FROG, GARBAGE, HAZARDOUS WASTE, LAKE, LITTER, LIZARD, LOGS, SKYLINE, SMOKESTACKS, SNOWY STREET, SNOWY TREE, STRUCTURE, SUBWAY, SUNFLOWER, SUNSET, TRACKS, TRAFFIC, TRASH

Student experimenters should create sets of photos and then measure heart rate and blood pressure before and during viewing of the images by fellow student participants.  Include assessment of subjective arousal to the video stimuli such as that described by Rowland, Kaariainen, and Houtsmuller (2000): Rate the following 4 adjectives using a 7 point scale, where 1 = not at all and 7 = extremely: relaxed, excited, calm, fearful.  In addition to reporting on the results of the arousal measures, student experimenters should describe their photo sets in terms of potential confounds and how those confounds may affect arousal reports.

(adapted from Rowland, D. L., Kaariainen, A., & Houtsmuller, E. J., 2000. Interactions between physiological and affective arousal: A laboratory exercise for psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 34-37.)

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MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES

FILMS: NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TOXINS ON CHILDREN

Three films that instructors could use to introduce the topic of toxins and neurological development are

• UP CLOSE AND TOXIC (2003, 45 min.)

This film  addresses the hazards of houshold toxins.  It features indoor air quality expert Dr. Richard Corsi from the University of Texas-Austin and Dr. Donna Mergler from the University of Quebec, who is studying neurological effects of exposure to toxins.  See a description of the film on the Bullfrog Films site here. 

• KIDS & CHEMICALS (2002, 58 min.)

This episode of PBS's NOW series, hosted by Bill Moyers, aired on May 10, 2002.  The program describes research on the effects of toxins on children's health and features families who are coping with the consequences of their children's exposure to toxins.  For a PDF of Sue Koger's discussion questions to accompany this film, click here.  Additional educator resources from PBS can be accessed at http://www.pbs.org/now/classroom/classroom_kids.html. 

*Note: According to the video, there are greater than 75,000 chemicals listed with the EPA; that number is currently up to about 85,000 with 2,000-3,000 new chemicals registered annually.

• PLAYING WITH POISON (2002, 46 min.)

In this film, anthropologist Elizabeth Guillette describes her research on the effects of pesticides on the neurological health of children living in the Yaqui Valley of Mexico.  See details on the Bullfrog Film site here.

   

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WEBSITE: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY NEWSLINK

This site, sponsored by Sinauer Associates, Inc., is meant to accompany Rosenzweig, Breedlove, and Watson (2004).  It is a searchable database of abstracts of news articles related to biopsychology topics.  Students can search by a list of keywords related to sustainability (e.g., animal rights, neurotoxins, evolution) or by their own search terms (e.g., conservation, environmentalist) to find links to relevant articles.

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SUGGESTED READINGS FOR STUDENTS

Winter, D. D., & Koger, S. M. (2004).  Physiological and health psychology. In The psychology of

environmental problems (2nd ed., pp. 121-153). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    

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REFERENCES CITED IN THIS SECTION

Carbone, L. (2004).  What animals want: Expertise and advocacy in laboratory animal welfare

policy.  New York: Oxford University Press.

Jochen, B. (2003). Natural scenes upset the visual applecart. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 7-9.

Kellert, S. R. (1997).  Kinship to mastery: Biophilia in human evolution and

development.  Washington, DC: Island Press.

Kellert, S. R. & Wilson, E. O. (Eds.) (1993). The biophilia hypothesis.  Washington, DC: Island Press.

Koger, S. M., Schettler, T., & Weiss, B. (2005). Environmental toxicants and developmental

disabilities: A challenge for psychologists. American Psychologist, 60, 243-255.

Li, F., VanRullen, R., Koch, C., & Perona, P. (2005). Why does natural scene categorization

require little attention? Exploring attentional requirements for natural and synthetic stimuli. Visual Cognition, 12, 893-924.

Panzica, G. C., Viglietti-Panzica, C., & Ottinger, M. A. (2005).  Introduction: Neurobiological

impact of environmental estrogens.  Brain Research Bulletin, 65, 187-191.

Porterfield, S. (2000).  Thyroidal dysfunction and environmental chemicals-- Potential impact on brain

development.  Environmental Health Perspectives, 108, 433-438.

Rosenzweig, M.R., Breedlove, M., & Watson, M. V. (2004).  Biological psychology: An introduction to

behavioral and cognitive neuroscience, (4th ed).   Sunderland, CT: Sinauer Associates. 

Rowland, D. L., Kaariainen, A., & Houtsmuller, E. J.  (2000). Interactions between physiological and

affective arousal: A laboratory exercise for psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 34-37.

VanRullen, R., & Thorpe, S. J. (2001). The time course of visual processing: From early perception to

decision-making. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 454-461.

Weiss, B. (1997).  Pesticides as a source of developmental disabilities.  Mental Retardation and

Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 3, 246-256.

Weiss, B. (1998). Behavioral manifestations of neurotoxicity. In A. Lundberg (Ed.), The environment

and mental health: A guide for clinicians (pp 25-42). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Werner, C. M. (2003).  Changing homeowners’ use of toxic household products: A transactional

approach.  Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 33-45.

Wilson, E. O. (1984).  Biophilia.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Winter, D. D., & Koger, S. M. (2004).  Physiological and health psychology. In The psychology of

environmental problems (2nd ed., pp. 121-153). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Zala, S. M., & Penn, D. J. (2004). Abnormal behaviors induced by chemical pollution: A review of the

evidence and new challenges.  Animal Behavior, 68, 649-664.

   

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